Celtic nations

The six Celtic nations, as recognised by the Celtic League:      Scotland      Ireland      Isle of Man      Wales      Cornwall      Brittany

The Celtic nations are territories in North-West Europe in which that area's own Celtic languages and cultural traits have survived. The term "nation" is used in this context to mean a generally defined region that is associated with a common identity, language or culture. It is not synonymous with "sovereign state", but rather with traditional territories or "countries".

The six territories recognised as Celtic nations are Brittany (Breizh), Cornwall (Kernow), Ireland (Éire), the Isle of Man (Mannin), Scotland (Alba), and Wales (Cymru).[1][2] Limitation to these six is sometimes disputed by people from Asturias and Galicia (including Northern Portugal).[3][4][5] Until the expansions of the Roman Republic and Germanic tribes, a significant part of Western Europe was mainly Celtic.[6]

Contents

Six Celtic nations

Each of the six nations has its own living Celtic language. In Wales, Scotland, Britanny, and Ireland, these have been spoken continuously through time, while Cornwall and the Isle of Man have languages that were spoken into modern times but later died as spoken community languages.[7][8][9] In both of the latter regions, however, revitalization movements have led to the adoption of these languages by adults and produced a number of native speakers.[10][11]

Ireland, Wales, Brittany and Scotland contain areas where a Celtic language is used on a daily basis – in Ireland the area is called the Gaeltacht, Y Fro Gymraeg and in Brittany Breizh-Izel.[12][13] Generally these communities are in the west of their countries and in upland or island areas. The term Gàidhealtachd historically distinguished the Gaelic-speaking areas of Scotland (the Highlands) from the Lowland Scots-speaking areas. More recently, this term has also been adopted as the Gaelic name of the Highland council area, which includes non-Gaelic speaking areas. Hence, more specific terms such as sgìre Ghàidhlig ("Gaelic-speaking area") are now used.

In Wales, the Welsh language is a core curriculum (compulsory) subject, which all pupils study.[14] Additionally, 20% of school children in Wales go to Welsh medium schools, where "they are taught entirely in the Welsh language".[15] In Ireland, 7.4% of primary school education is through Irish medium education.[15]

Nation Celtic name Language People Population Native-competent speakers Percentage of population
Ireland Éire Irish
(Gaeilge)		 Irish
(Éireannaigh)		 6,000,000 Republic: 355,000 (native)
1,660,000 (competent)[16]
 Republic: 42%[16]
Northern: 10.4% (see note [17])
Wales Cymru Welsh
(Cymraeg)		 Welsh
(Cymry)		 3,000,000 611,000[18] 21.7%[18]
Brittany Breizh Breton
(Brezhoneg)		 Bretons
(Breizhiz)		 4,000,000 200,000[19] 3%[20]
Isle of Man Ellan Vannin Manx
(Gaelg)		 Manx
(Manninee)		 70,000 1,700[21] 2.2%[22]
Scotland Alba Scottish Gaelic
(Gàidhlig)		 Scots
(Albannaich)		 5,000,000 92,400[23] 1.2%[24]
Cornwall Kernow Cornish
(Kernewek)		 Cornish
(Kernowyon)		 500,000 2000[25] 0.1%[26][27]

Of the languages above, three belong to the Goidelic or Gaelic branch (Irish, Manx, Scottish Gaelic) and three to the Brythonic or Brittonic branch (Welsh, Cornish, Breton). Their names for each other in each language shows some of the differences and similarities:

  Ireland Scotland Mann Wales Cornwall Brittany Great
Britain		 Celtic nations
Celtic languages
Irish
(Gaeilge)[28]		 Éire Albain Manainn an Bhreatain
Bheag		 an Chorn an Bhriotáin an Bhreatain
Mhór		 Náisiúin Cheilteacha
Teangacha Ceilteacha
Scottish
(Gàidhlig)		 Èirinn Alba Manainn a' Chuimrigh a' Chòrn a' Bhreatainn
Bheag		 Breatainn
Mhòr		 Nàiseanan Ceilteach
Cànain Cheilteach
Manx
(Gaelg)		 Nerin Nalbin Mannin Bretyn y Chorn y Vritaan Bretyn
Vooar		 Ashoonyn Celtiagh
Çhengaghyn Celtiagh
Welsh
(Cymraeg)		 Iwerddon yr Alban Manaw Cymru Cernyw Llydaw Prydain
Fawr		 Gwledydd Celtaidd
Ieithoedd Celtaidd
Cornish
(Kernewek)		 Wordhon Alban Manow Kembra Kernow Breten
Vian		 Breten
Veur		 Broyow Keltek
Yethow Keltek
Breton
(Brezhoneg)		 Iwerzhon Alban/Skos Manav Kembre Kernev Breizh Breizh
Veur		 Broioù Keltiek
Yezhoù Keltiek

Celtic identity

Group of young men and women, wearing white shirts (some with black waistcoats) and black trousers, marching in a parade, in the sunshine. Each is playing a bagpipe. The bag is a claret colour. The entire picture is full of people. Those not taking part in the parade are watching the procession.
Pipers at the
Festival Interceltique de Lorient

Formal cooperation between the Celtic nations is active in many contexts, including politics, languages, culture, music and sports:

The Celtic League is an inter-Celtic political organisation, which campaigns for the political, language, cultural and social rights, affecting one or more of the Celtic nations.[29]

Established in 1917, the Celtic Congress is a non-political organisation that seeks to promote Celtic culture and languages and to maintain intellectual contact and close cooperation between Celtic peoples.[30]

Festivals celebrating the culture of the Celtic nations include the Festival Interceltique de Lorient (Brittany), the Pan Celtic Festival (Ireland), the National Celtic Festival (Portarlington, Australia), the Celtic Media Festival (showcasing film and television from the Celtic nations), and the Eisteddfod (Wales).[5][31][32][33]

Inter-Celtic music festivals include Celtic Connections (Glasgow), and the Hebridean Celtic Festival (Stornoway).[34][35] Due to immigration, a dialect of Scottish Gaelic (Canadian Gaelic) is spoken by some on Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, while a Welsh-speaking minority exists in the Chubut Province of Argentina. Hence, for certain purposes, such as the Festival Interceltique de Lorient– Galicia, Asturias and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia are considered three of the nine Celtic nations.[5]

Competitions are held between the Celtic nations in sports such as rugby union (Magners League – formerly known as the Celtic League) and athletics (Celtic Cup).[36][37]

The Republic of Ireland enjoyed a period of rapid economic growth between 1995–2007, leading to the use of the phrase Celtic Tiger to describe the country.[38][39] Aspirations for Scotland to achieve a similar economic performance to that of Ireland's led the Scotland First Minister Alex Salmond to set out his vision of a Celtic Lion economy for Scotland, in 2007.[40]

Terminology

The term "Celtic nations" derives from the linguistics studies of the 16th century scholar George Buchanan and the polymath Edward Lhuyd.[1] As Assistant Keeper and then Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford (1691–1709), Lhuyd travelled extensively in Great Britain, Ireland and Brittany in the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Noting the similarity between the languages of Brittany, Cornwall and Wales, which he called "P-Celtic" or Brythonic, the languages of Ireland, the Isle of Mann and Scotland, which he called "Q-Celtic" or Goidelic, and between the two groups, Lhuyd published Archaeologia Britannica: an Account of the Languages, Histories and Customs of Great Britain, from Travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas-Bretagne, Ireland and Scotland in 1707. His Archaeologia Britannica concluded that all six languages derived from the same root. Lhuyd theorised that the root language descended from the languages spoken by the Iron Age tribes of Gaul, whom Greek and Roman writers called Celtic.[41] Having defined the languages of those areas as Celtic, the people living in them and speaking those languages became known as Celtic too. There is some dispute as to whether Lhuyd's theory is correct. Nevertheless, the term "Celtic" to describe the languages and peoples of Brittany, Cornwall and Wales, Ireland, the Isle of Mann and Scotland was accepted from the 18th century and is widely used today.[1]

These areas of Europe are sometimes referred to as the "Celt belt" or "Celtic fringe" because of their location generally on the western edges of the continent, and of the states they inhabit (e.g. Brittany is in the northwest of France, Cornwall is in the south west of Great Britain, Wales in western Great Britain and the Gaelic-speaking parts of Ireland and Scotland are in the west of those countries).[42][43] Additionally, this region is known as the "Celtic Crescent" because of the near crescent shaped position of the nations in Europe.[44]

Territories of the ancient Celts

Main articles: Celts and List of Celtic tribes
The Celts in Europe, past and present:      areas where Celtic languages are widely spoken      the six most commonly recognised 'Celtic nations'      maximum Celtic expansion, by the 3rd century BC      core Hallstatt territory, by the 6th century BC

During the European Iron Age, the ancient Celts extended their territory to most of Western and Central Europe.

The Continental Celtic languages were extinct by the Early Middle Ages, and the continental "Celtic cultural traits", such as an oral tradition contained in the language and that was transmitted through it, mainly disappeared, at the same time the catholic religion fought against the remains of a Celtic paganism.

Since they no longer have a living Celtic language, they are not included as 'Celtic nations'. Nonetheless, some of these countries have movements claiming a "Celtic identity"

Iberian Peninsula

The Iberian Peninsula was an area heavily influenced by Celtic culture, particularly the ancient region of Gallaecia (the modern Spanish regions of Galicia and Asturias, plus Northern Portugal). As this region was inhabited by attested or supposedly Celtic tribes, such as the Gallaeci, the Astures, the Lusitanians and the Celtici, among others, modern-day Galicians, Asturians and Portuguese claim a Celtic identity. Although the cultural traces are as difficult to analyse as in the other former Celtic countries of Europe, because of the almost complete disparition of the Celtic languages around the first century AD, Celtic heritage can be attested in toponymics and language substratum and other cultural expressions such as music and folklore. Further Celtic influence is attributed to the fifth century Romano-Briton colony of Britonia in Galicia.

Tenth century Middle Irish mythical history Lebor Gabála Érenn (Irish: Leabhar Gabhála Éireann) credited Gallaecia as the point from where the Gallaic Celts sailed to conquer Ireland.

England

Principal sites in Roman Britain, with indication of the Celtic tribes.

In Celtic languages, England is usually referred to as "Saxon-land" (Sasana, Pow Sows, Bro-Saoz etc.), and in Welsh as Lloegr (though the Welsh translation of English (language) also refers to the Saxon route: Saesneg, with the English people being referred to as "Saeson", or "Saes" in the singular). This is because the Celtic peoples of what is now England succumbed to the invading Saxons and were either driven out of their lands, killed or assimilated into the culture of Englalond. However, spoken Cumbric survived until the 12th century, Cornish until the 18th century, and Welsh within the Welsh Marches, notably in Archenfield, now part of Herefordshire, until around the same time. Both Cumbria and Cornwall were traditionally Brythonic in culture and are considered so by many in England; Anglo-Saxon settlement in these areas was historically small. Cornwall existed as an independent state for some time after the foundation of England, and Cumbria originally retained a great deal of autonomy within the Kingdom of Northumbria. The unification of the Anglian kingdom of Northumbria with the Cumbric kingdom of Cumbria came about due to a political marriage between the Northumbrian King Oswiu and Queen Riemmelth. Though the Anglian settlement in Cumbria was as a whole minor, they settled in the Eden valley and along the north and south coasts. The placename Inglewood attests to the Anglian presence, even if it is, by and large, minor.

Movements of population between different parts of Great Britain over the last two centuries, with industrial development and changes in living patterns such as the growth of second home ownership, have greatly modified the demographics of these areas, including the Isles of Scilly off the coast of Cornwall, although Cornwall in particular retains unique cultural features, and a Cornish self-government movement is well established.[45]

Remnants of Brythonic and Cumbric placenames are sometimes seen throughout spots in England but are more common in the West than the East, mainly in the traditionally Celtic areas of Cornwall and Cumbria. Elements such as caer 'fort' as in the Cumbrian city of Carlisle, pen 'hill' as in the Cumbrian town of Penrith and craig 'crag, rock' as in High Crag. The name 'Cumbria' is derived from the same root as Cymru, the Welsh name for Wales, meaning 'the land of comrades'. There is a current attempt to revive Cumbric and about 50 words of a reconstructed, hypothetical "Cumbric" exist.

Formerly Gaulish regions

Repartition of Gaul ca. 54 BC

Most French people themselves identify actively with the ancient Gauls.[46]

The French- and Arpitan-speaking Aosta Valley region in Italy also presents a casual claim of Celtic heritage. [47] The Northern League autonomist party often exalts what it claims are the Celtic roots of the entire Northern Italy, or Padania. [48] Reportedly, Friuli also has an ephemeral claim to Celticity. [49]

Walloons occasionally characterise themselves as "Celts", mainly opposed to "Teutonic", Flemish and "Latin" French identities. [50] Others think they are Belgian, that is to say Germano-Celtic people different of the Gaulish-Celtic French. [50]

The ethnonym "Walloon" derives from a Germanic word meaning "foreign", cognate with the words "Welsh" and "Vlach". The name of Belgium, home country of the Walloon people, is cognate with the Celtic tribal names Belgae and (possibly) the Irish legendary Fir Bolg.

Central European regions

Celtic tribes inhabited land in what is now southern Germany and Austria.[51] Many scholars have associated the earliest Celtic peoples with the Hallstatt culture.[52] Boii, Scordisci[53] and the Vindelici[54] are some of the tribes that inhabited Central Europe, including what is now Slovakia, Serbia, Croatia, Poland and the Czech Republic as well as Germany and Austria. The Boii gave their name to Bohemia.[55] Celts also founded Singidunum present-day Belgrade, leaving many words in Serbian language (over 5000). The La Tène culture also covered much of central Europe. The name of the culture is from the location in Switzerland.[56]

Celtic diaspora

Main articles: Cornish diaspora, Gaelic diaspora, and Welsh diaspora

In other regions, people with a heritage from one of the 'Celtic nations' also associate with the Celtic identity. In these areas, Celtic traditions and languages are significant components of local culture. These include the Permanent North American Gaeltacht in Tamworth, Ontario, Canada which is the only Irish Gaeltacht outside of Ireland, the Chubut valley of Patagonia with Welsh-speaking Argentinians (known as "Y Wladfa"), Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, with Gaelic-speaking Canadians and southeast Newfoundland with Irish-speaking Canadians. Also at one point in the 1900s there were well over 12,000 Gaelic Scots from the Isle of Lewis living in the Eastern Townships of Quebec, Canada, with place names that still exist today recalling those inhabitants.

Large swathes of the United States of America were subject to migration from Celtic peoples, or people from Celtic nations. Irish-speaking Irish Catholics congregated particularly in the East Coast cities of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, while Scots and Ulster-Scots were particularly prominent in the Southern United States, including Appalachia.

A legend that became popular during the Elizabethan period claims that a Welsh prince named Madoc established a colony in North America in the late 12th century. The story continues that the settlers merged with local Indian tribes, who preserved the Welsh language and the Christian religion for hundreds of years.[57] However, there is no contemporary evidence that Prince Madoc existed. An area of Pennsylvania known as the Welsh Tract was settled by Welsh Quakers, where the names of several towns still bear Welsh names, such as Bryn Mawr, Upper & Lower Gwynedd Townships and Bala Cynwyd. In the 19th century, Welsh settlers arrived in the Chubut River valley of Patagonia, Argentina and established a colony called "Gwladfa Gymraeg"/"Colonia Gales". Today, the Welsh language and Welsh tea houses are common in several towns, many of which have Welsh names. Dolavon and Trelew are examples of Welsh towns.

In his autobiography, the South African poet Roy Campbell recalled his youth in the Dargle Valley, near the city of Pietermaritzburg, where people spoke only Gaelic and Zulu.

In New Zealand the southern regions of Otago and Southland were settled by the Free Church of Scotland. Many of the place names in these two regions (such as the main cities of Dunedin and Invercargill and the major river, the Clutha) have Scottish Gaelic names,[58] and Celtic culture is still prominent in this area.[59][60][61]

In addition to these, a number of people from Canada, the USA, Australia, South Africa and other parts of the former British Empire have formed various Celtic societies over the years.

See also

  • Anglo-Celtic
  • Breton nationalism
  • Celt
  • Celtic Art

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 "Who were the Celts? ... Rhagor". Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales website. Amgueddfa Cymru – National Museum Wales. 2007-05-04. http://www.museumwales.ac.uk/en/rhagor/article/1939/. Retrieved 2009-12-10. 
  2. ↑ Celticleague.net
  3. ↑ "Welsh Assembly Government - Celtic countries connect with contemporary Cymru". Welsh Assembly Government website. Welsh Assembly Government. 2008-05-13. http://wales.gov.uk/news/topic/officefirstminister/2008/2372569/;jsessionid=2HxQKNPNwtyLzpl2VLlsysLyGVVhyMybcd94RlxXDyZHG6VpJbjP!1298896870?lang=en. Retrieved 2009-05-15. 
  4. ↑ "Isle of Man Post Office Website". Isle of Man Post Office website. Isle of Man Government. 2009. http://www.gov.im/post/stamps/FutureIssue.aspx?categoryid=164. Retrieved 2009-05-15. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 "Site Officiel du Festival Interceltique de Lorient". Festival Interceltique de Lorient website. Festival Interceltique de Lorient. 2009. http://www.festival-interceltique.com/le-monde-des-celtes-et-de-la-celtie.php. Retrieved 2009-05-15. 
  6. ↑ Ian Johnston (2006-09-21). "We're nearly all Celts under the skin". The Scotsman. http://thescotsman.scotsman.com/index.cfm?id=1393742006. Retrieved 2007-11-24. 
  7. ↑ Koch, John T. (2006). Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. pp. 34, 365–366, 529, 973, 1053. http://books.google.com.au/books?id=f899xH_quaMC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Celtic+Culture:+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&source=bl&ots=p_YAf9AxXK&sig=GoBU0DW1RAo3_2SQW3PFMICrA5A&hl=en&ei=0nAXTI6LCJKekQWM6KWcCw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=3&ved=0CCcQ6AEwAg#v=onepage&q&f=false. Retrieved June 15, 2010. 
  8. ↑ "A brief history of the Cornish language". Maga Kernow. http://www.magakernow.org.uk/index.aspx?articleid=38590#Revival. 
  9. ↑ Beresford Ellis, Peter (1990, 1998, 2005). The Story of the Cornish Language. Tor Mark Press. pp. 20-22. ISBN 0-85025-371-3. 
  10. ↑ Fockle ny ghaa: schoolchildren take charge
  11. ↑ "'South West:TeachingEnglish:British Council:BBC". BBC/British Council website (BBC). 2010. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west. Retrieved 2010-02-09. 
  12. ↑ Anyone here speak Jersey?
  13. ↑ "http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/Celtic_Languages.pdf" (pdf). Breizh.net website. U.S. Branch of the International Comittee for the Defense of the Breton Language. 1995. http://www.breizh.net/icdbl/saozg/Celtic_Languages.pdf. Retrieved 2008-10-26. 
  14. ↑ "BBC Wales - The School Gate - About School - The Curriculum at Primary School -". BBC website. BBC. 2010-02-20. http://www.bbc.co.uk/wales/schoolgate/aboutschool/content/curriculumprimary.shtml. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 "BBC News:Education:Local UK languages 'taking off'". BBC News website (BBC). 2009-02-12. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/education/7885493.stm. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 2006 Census
  17. ↑ The figure for Northern Ireland from the 2001 Census is somewhat ambiguous, as it covers people who have "some knowledge of Irish". Out of the 167,487 people who claimed to have "some knowledge", 36,479 of them could only understand it spoken, but couldn't speak it themselves.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 "Publication of the report on the 2004 Welsh Language Use Survey". Welsh Language Board website An increase from the 2001 census results: 582,368 persons age 3 and over were able to speak Welsh – 20.8% of the population.. Welsh Language Board. 8 May 2006. http://www.byig-wlb.org.uk/english/news/pages/publicationofthereportonthe2004welshlanguageusesurvey.aspx. Retrieved 2010-04-04. 
  19. ↑ The most recent census (2001) shows about 270,000 speakers. The site oui au breton estimates a yearly decline of about 10,000 speakers, suggesting a number of about 200,000 current speakers. Retrieved 2008-09-24.
  20. ↑ (French) Données clés sur breton, Ofis ar Brezhoneg
  21. ↑ 2006 Official Census, Isle of Man
  22. ↑ Gov.im - Culture
  23. ↑ BBC News: Mixed report on Gaelic language
  24. ↑ Kenneth MacKinnon (2003). "Census 2001 Scotland: Gaelic Language – first results". http://lrrc3.sas.upenn.edu/popcult/CLPP/Census%202001%20-%20Gaelic1.htm. Retrieved 2007-03-24. 
  25. ↑ "'South West:TeachingEnglish:British Council:BBC". BBC/British Council website (BBC). 2010. http://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/uk-languages/south-west. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  26. ↑ projects.ex.ac.uk - On being a Cornish ‘Celt’: changing Celtic heritage and traditions
  27. ↑ Effectively extinct as a spoken language in 1777. Language revived from 1904, though remains a tiny 0.1% percent being able to hold a limited conversion in Cornish.
  28. ↑ Foclóir Póca (1992) An Gúm
  29. ↑ "The Celtic League". Celtic League website. The Celtic League. 2010. http://www.celticleague.net/. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  30. ↑ "Information on The International Celtic Congress Douglas, Isle of Man hosted by" (in Irish, English). Celtic Congress website. Celtic Congress. 2010. http://www.ccheilteach.ie/cc-hist-mellis.html. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  31. ↑ "Welcome to the Pan Celtic 2010 Home Page". Pan Celtic Festival 2010 website. Fáilte Ireland. 2010. http://www.panceltic.ie/. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  32. ↑ "About the Festival". National Celtic Festival website. National Celtic Festival. 2009. http://www.nationalcelticfestival.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=24&Itemid=26. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  33. ↑ "About Us::Celtic Media Festival". Celtic Media Festival website. Celtic Media Festival. 2009. http://www.celticmediafestival.co.uk/4/about_us/. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  34. ↑ "Celtic connections:Scotland's premier winter music festival". Celtic connections website. Celtic Connections. 2010. http://www.celticconnections.com/. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  35. ↑ "'Hebridean Celtic Festival 2010 - the biggest homecoming party of the year". Hebridean Celtic Festival website. Hebridean Celtic Festival. 2009. http://www.hebceltfest.com/. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  36. ↑ "Magners League:About Us:Contact Information". Magners League website. Magners League. 2009. http://www.magnersleague.com/about/index.php. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  37. ↑ "scottishathletics-news". scottishathletics website. scottishathletics. 2006-06-14. http://www.scottishathletics.org.uk/index.php?p=17&itemType=news&itemId=2025. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  38. ↑ Coulter, Colin; Coleman, Steve (2003). The end of Irish history?: critical reflections on the Celtic tiger. Manchester: Manchester University Press. p. 83. ISBN 0 7190 6230 6. http://books.google.com/books?id=HUotQrzh-uIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Celtic+Tiger&cd=2#v=onepage&q=Celtic%20people&f=false. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  39. ↑ ""Celtic Tiger" No More - CBS Evening News - CBS News". CBS News website (CBS Interactive). 2009-03-07. http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2009/03/07/eveningnews/main4851791.shtml. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  40. ↑ "BBC News:Scotland:Salmond gives Celtic Lion vision". BBC News website (BBC). 2007-10-12. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/scotland/7042726.stm. Retrieved 2010-02-20. 
  41. ↑ Lhuyd, Edward (1707). Archaeologia Britannica: an Account of the Languages, Histories and Customs of Great Britain, from Travels through Wales, Cornwall, Bas-Bretagne, Ireland and Scotland. Oxford. http://books.google.com/books?id=KmsuAAAAQAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=Edward+Lhuyd&cd=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false. 
  42. ↑ Nathalie Koble, Jeunesse et genèse du royaume arthurien, Paradigme, 2007, ISBN 2868782701, p.145
  43. ↑ The term "Celtic Fringe" gained currency in late-Victorian years (Thomas Heyck, A History of the Peoples of the British Isles: From 1870 to Present, Routledge, 2002, ISBN 0415302331, p.43) and is now widely attested, e.g. Michael Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, Transaction Publishers, 1999, ISBN 0765804751; Nicholas Hooper and Matthew Bennett, England and the Celtic Fringe: Colonial Warfare in The Cambridge Illustrated Atlas of Warfare, Cambridge University Press, 1996, ISBN 0521440491
  44. ↑ Ian Hazlett, The Reformation in Britain and Ireland, Continuum International Publishing Group, 2003, ISBN 0567082806, p.21
  45. ↑ The Kingdom of Kernow 'exists apart from England' - Telegraph.co.uk, 29 Jan 2010
  46. ↑ "What Is France? Who Are the French?". http://cdis.missouri.edu/exec/data/courses/2313/public/lesson01/lesson01.aspx. Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  47. ↑ "Aosta Festival digs up Celtic roots in Italy". http://www.italymag.co.uk/italy/aosta-valley/aosta-festival-digs-celtic-roots-italy. Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  48. ↑ "Celtica Festival 2009, Northern Italy". http://pamle.blogspot.com/2009/05/celtica-festical-2009.html. Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  49. ↑ "KurMor Celtic Festival in Ara, Udine, Friuli, Italy". http://www.myspace.com/kurmor. Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 "Belgium: Flemings, Walloons and Germans". http://www.faqs.org/minorities/Western-Europe-and-Scandinavia/Belgium-Flemings-Walloons-and-Germans.html. Retrieved 15 May 2010. 
  51. ↑ Celts - Hallstatt and La Tene cultures
  52. ↑ Celtic Impressions - The Celts
  53. ↑ AncientWorlds.net, 27k
  54. ↑ Vindelici
  55. ↑ Boii - Britannica Online Encyclopedia
  56. ↑ The Early Celts
  57. ↑ Catlin, G. Die Indianer Nordamerikas Verlag Lothar Borowsky
  58. ↑ Te Ara: Encyclopedia of New Zealand
  59. ↑ ODT.co.nz
  60. ↑ DunedinCelticArts.org.nz
  61. ↑ OtagoCaledonian.org

Further reading

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